Unit II: Methods of Philosophizing

         Overview of the Lesson

        As shown in the previous chapter, insight plays an important role in any philosophical underpinning.  Insights differ from one philosopher to another, as noted in the history of philosophy.  The fact that insights vary implies that different philosophers “see” reality from different perspectives.  Because of this fact, this unit is designed to orient students the four different approaches to the study of human persons, such as cosmocentric, theocentric, anthropocentric, and existential (Dy, 2001; Pavo, 2012).  With a combination of theocentric and existential approaches, this chapter shows that phenomenology is an appropriate method in finding meaning in life lurking in one’s lived experiences.  In part 1, some basic concepts such as knowledge, opinion, and wisdom are defined so as to understand that the fundamental problem in dealing with the reality of man is methodical –how we do know that what we know about ourselves is certainly true.

Lesson Contents:

      

      A.     Basic Concepts Defined [click]

       1.  Fact, proposition, and belief

       2.  Opinion, knowledge, and wisdom

      B.     Philosophical Perspectives To Study Human Persons [click]

       1.  Cosmocentric, Theocentric, Anthropocentric, & Existential Perspectives

       2.  Phenomenological Methods: Husserlian and Marcelian [click]


Pre-test 1 [click] (Before you proceed, check your prior knowledge about Opinion, Knowledge, and Wisdom.) 

Pre-test 2 [click] (Before you proceed, check your prior knowledge about the philosophical perspectives and phenomenological methods.)



Motivational Activity 1 [click] This activity is designed to enhance students' curiosity about the inherent problem of acquiring knowledge. 

Motivational Activity 2 [click] This is intended to apply the four philosophical perspectives to a particular situation.  A single problem of human beings can be viewed from different perspectives.

      

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Chapter Quiz 1: Covers the topics about Proposition, Opinion, Knowledge, and Wisdom.  

Chapter Quiz 2: Covers the topics about Philosophical Perspectives and Phenomenological Methods. 

References: [click]

Unit I: Doing Philosophy

Overview of the Lesson:

One misconception about philosophy is that it is highly intellectual and speculative.  It is fitting only to individuals known to have a natural endowment of reason/intellect.  Students may think of philosophy as something strange and out-of-this-world since it deals with the realm where only philosophers are privileged to have perched and philosophized. 

This lesson, however, introduces philosophy as a mental activity in a form of insight, which is inseparably one with life.  So long as one has life –regardless of his color, race, and status, he is capable of philosophizing.    Playing with one’s insight is one of the ways of doing philosophy.  Thus, this lesson starts with initiating class activities such as story and picture analyses that will elicit insight from students.  It also covers the different courses in philosophy.  Towards the end, it highlights the importance of philosophical reflection in modern life.

Lesson Contents:

            1.     What is Philosophy? [click]

    1.1    Insight [click]

    1.2    Why do we philosophize? [click]

    1.3    When do we begin to philosophize? [click]

2.     Branches of Philosophy [click]

    2.1    Systematic Philosophy

    2.2    Historical Philosophy

3.     The Significance of Philosophizing in Modern Times [click]

Pre-test: [click] (Before you proceed, try to test your prior knowledge about philosophy.)

Motivational Activity 1: [click] Story-analysis.  This activity enhances students' ability to do conceptual analysis, which is one of the ways of playing insights.  The gist of the story entitled, Six Blind Men and An Elephant, is very relevant to the problem of truth, which troubled the minds of great philosophers.

Motivation Activity 2: [click] Song-analysis.  This activity enhances students' ability to analyze metaphors.  The title of the song is Who am I? by Casting Crown.  Asking the same question is a good start for the philosophical study of the human person.

Chapter Quiz 1:  Covers the first sub-topic, What is Philosophy?  There are two types: (1) objective and (2) essay --story analysis.  

Chapter Quiz 2:  Covers the second sub-topic, Branches of Philosophy.  

References:  [click]

Unpacking the Self

Unpacking the Self is Chapter II of the course, Understanding The Self.  After understanding the Self from different perspectives such as philosophical, sociological, anthropological, and psychological, we come to this point where we are going to unpack the different facets of the self.  The Self is multi-dimensional or multi-faceted --meaning, each individual self has a lot of facets or aspects in life, namely: physical, emotional, intellectual, social, political, spiritual, and moral.  This chapter, then, will try to single out each fabric of being human since it is deemed that each fabric or facet constitutes the SELF.

Lesson Contents:

1. Physical aspect [click]
2. Emotional aspect [click]
3. Intellectual aspect
4. Social aspect [click]
5. Political aspect
6. Spiritual aspect [click]
7. Moral aspect

Course Outcome 2: Students are able to live a well-rounded life.

Performance Tasks: The following tasks are designed to meet course outcome 2: to live a well-rounded life.  Task 1 [click]: Self-Assessment of One's Day-to-day Activities; Task 2 [click]: Self-Assessment of School Programs; Task 3 [click]: Self-Assessment of One's Life in the Family; and Task 4 [click]: Assessment of Economic and Government programs in the Country.

Is A Value Caught or Taught?

To post your thoughts or arguments regarding the topic, please be guided of the following guidelines: 

1.  Your comments shall only have 2 paragraphs; each paragraph shall not exceed 10 sentences;

2.  If you try to refute the point of your fellow student, please post your point/s immediately after the comment;

3.  Most importantly, refute only the point/argument raised by your fellow classmate; do not disparage the person who makes the argument.

4.  If you don't want to post your comment on this site, send it to my email.  I will be the one to cite point or argument on this site, if needed.

POINTS system:

1.  Clear points or arguments - 10 pts

2.  Your point or argument is something new, not repeated/cited in other comments - 5 pts

Thank you!  Let's have a lively sharing of ideas without necessarily hurting those who may have different ideas from us.

To recall, Francis Cual raised the point that "a value (like respect) must be caught, because necessarily a value must come from experience.  It is only when you have an experience of, say, "being respected," that you learn (caught) the value of respect.  Yet, Peter Paul Tumlad, on the other hand, quickly pointed out that "a value is taught, not caught."  Basic values in life are taught by our parents or other members of the family who, in a way, help instill these values in us.  In the end, we came to a consensus that "a value is both caught and taught."

However, after a minute of silence, another student insisted that values are taught, not caught.  At this instance, the dispute sparked anew.  I knew at that moment each of you still had point/s to share.  Because of limited time, I decided to stop the intensity of your want to share.  Now, share your thoughts here.  This platform is not time-bound.  Keep in touch.

Philippine Cultural Values

This chapter focuses on Philippine cultural values.  Values refer to “the beliefs, behaviour and material objects that constitute a people’s way of life” (Maciones, 1997 cited in Saquilayan, et al).  There are kinds of values: (1) personal, (2) organizational, (3) cultural, and (4) spiritual values. 

1.   Personal values are reflections of our needs, desires, and what we care about most in life (Chernyak).  For example: family, money, work, friends

2.  Organizational values guide the organization’s philosophy and actions (Meier).  For example: work, punctuality, productivity, resilience, cooperation

3. Cultural values refer to “a collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper –or bad, undesirable, and improper, in culture” (Schaefer, 2001 cited in Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  For example, close-family ties, hospitality, procrastination

4.   Spiritual values are fundamental values which have roots in our being human.  For example: love, faith in God, hope, non-violence

Cultural values are embedded in the culture of a certain group of people living in a society.  They represent the ideals of the people, which serve as a “great cohesive force for the identity of the group,” and serve as guidelines of their collective thoughts and actions.

Horacio de la Costa identified the following values: (1) self-reliance, (2) sharing with one’s fellowmen, (3) national unity, and (4) heroism.  Virgilio Enriquez (1992) also identified the following: (1) Kalayaan, (2) Katarungan, (3) Katotohanan, (4) Karangalan, and (5) Pakikipagkapwa.

There are many more values mentioned by sociologists and anthropologists, as follows: (1) Smooth Interpersonal Relationship [SIR], (2) Reciprocity [Utang na Loob], (3) Hiya [Self-esteem], (4) Bahala na, (5) Close family ties, and (6) respect for elders.

      Smooth Interpersonal Relationship – a mechanism or facility of getting along with others with others in order to avoid outward signs of conflict or avoidance of potential situations that may result to hiya. 
Reciprocity – is understood when there is a service received or something done, whether it is solicited or not, that demands a return.

Hiya – being sensitive to an offense or insult

Bahala na – wherein an individual submits to the belief by leaving matters to fate.

Close family ties – is described as an “extended family”

Respect for elders – is shown in the kissing of hands of elders.



East versus West

This section shows points of difference between Eastern (oriental) and Western (occidental) people.  The distinction between East and West refers to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres of the globe and all those people living therein.  Eastern people are those generally considered Asian including Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, etc.; Western people are those generally considered Europeans, white Americans as well. 

The danger, however, in giving a comparison of these people from the two hemispheres of the globe is that, in so doing, we might give a hasty generalization of what a Westerner is or an Oriental is.  For example, when we find out that a Chinese is family-oriented, a Filipino is family-oriented, and a Japanese is also family-oriented, we conclude that all Asians are family-oriented, or shall we say, all Asians have this sense of collective consciousness.  This kind of reasoning is fallacious –considered as a fallacy of hasty generalization.  It is hoped that in giving a comparison, we only give the essential traits of both peoples.

First, a Westerner is individualistic whereas an Oriental is collectivistic.  Western people give value of the individual rather than family.  What is important for them is individual success, privacy and competence.  Oriental people, on the other hand, give value of the family (collective) rather than the individual.  What matters for them is cooperation, collaboration, and bayanihan.

            Second, a Westerner thinks in a linear manner whereas an Oriental thinks of time in a cyclic manner. 

Third, a Westerner defines an object/thing in terms of species et differentia whereas an Oriental is good in naming relationship.

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References:

1.  Victorio Saquilayan, Felisa Aguirre, Miramar Garcia, et al.  (2009) Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

2.  Chernyak, Paul. https://www.wikihow.com/Define-Your-Personal-Values downloaded on Aug 31, 2018

3.  J.D. Meier. http://sourcesofinsight.com/organizational-values/ downloaded on Aug 31, 2018
4.  Emerita Quito, 1991, Merging Philosophy of East and West, Manila: De La Salle University Press

Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives

In the preceding chapter, The Philosophical Perspective, we tried to understand the self in philosophical way, starting from the Ancient Greek philosophers to Contemporary philosophers.  The next chapter on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives, we will be doing a kind of “archaeological digging” of the influences of the individual self.  In philosophy, we are taught to ask questions, further our questioning, and make questioning a habit, or as Rene Descartes would suggest, “doubt everything –systematically everything” until such time that we will arrive at something which is no longer dubitable.  In sociology and anthropology, we will “dig” –most likely similar to the idea of “excavation” done in archaeology, the different layers of influence of the self.  In particular, we look into the influences of other people in socialization process and the influences of social structures, institutions, and culture in the society to the SELF.  The topics, therefore, covered in this chapter are as follows:

A.     Sociology

1.  Theories of socialization
2.  Social Stratification
      a.  Social class
      b.  Social status
      c.  Role
      d.  Gender

3.  The basic institutions: family, school, government, religion, and economy

B.     Anthropology

1.  Self, embedded in culture

2.  Philippine cultural values

3.  West vs. East

Class Activity: Clarification of Values [click].  This activity is designed to help students clarify their personal values against their cultural values.  Cultural values are given; personal values are earned.  In the language of Socrates, they're caught, not taught. 


          After the “digging,” we hope to understand how the self is shaped by external factors and influences.  This consideration is somehow hanged on the nurture-nature problem – Is the self nurtured or natural?, or What matters most: genes or environment?  If we take into consideration the influence of the environment, we believe that the self is nurtured.  But, we don’t also disregard the fact that each human being is determined by his/her genes, which we will not discuss in this chapter.

     To begin, let’s define sociology.  Sociology is the systematic study of human society (Macionis, 2012).  Though the approach of Sociology is scientific but, at the heart of it, lies a point of view known as “sociological perspective.”  Sociological perspective is characterized by “seeing the general in the particular” (Berger, 1963 cited in Macionis).  Using this kind of perspective is like “seeing strange in the familiar” (Macionis, 2012).  In everyday life, what we usually do, think, or encounter are the things familiar to us.  For example, when we buy goods in a mall, what is usual or familiar is that the items we buy are placed inside a plastic bag.  What is strange in this familiar activity is that this plastic bag used in packaging the items adds up to the volumes of non-degradable wastes in our localities or in major cities.  These wastes materials cause headaches to our local officials on how to dispose or manage them for recycling.  Using this perspective, then, will help us see a “bigger picture” or help us formulate a “general view” of a certain issue or matter at hand.

Sociology is divided into two: micro-sociology and macro-sociology.  Micro-sociology deals with the details of particular interactions as they occur in everyday life (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  The topics mentioned above such as socialization, role, status, gender, and social class are concepts dealt in micro-sociology.  Macro-sociology, on the other hand, concerns with the larger patterns of relations among major social sectors (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  The topics such as family, religion, government, school, and economy are concepts dealt in macro-sociology.  Although with limited time for discussion, we’ll try to unpack their meaning, and how these social processes and structures enable us to understand the self better in the context of social life.  Group life (social life) is the groundwork or the “laboratory” of sociologists.  Without the common life of a group of people, sociology will not exist as an independent discipline.  We know how important group life is to each and every individual.  Individual self is shaped by the shared life of the group.  It is in this context that we will discuss the following concepts: socialization, role, status, gender, and social class.  In discussing these concepts, we need to put in mind how each concept shapes the self.

 a.  Socialization – a process by which an individual acquires attitudes, beliefs, and values of his or her culture.  It is a life-long process, which begins from infancy, to childhood, to adolescence, adulthood and finally old age (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  It is undeniably true that in each stage of life, one may socialize with different persons who may have different values, beliefs and attitudes.  It would follow that he may have acquired various values, beliefs and attitudes in each stage of life.  Socialization is when one develops his self-concept and personality.

Theories of Socialization:

1.      “Looking Glass Self” Theory, developed by Charles Horton Cooley

2.      The Social Self Theory, developed by George Herbert Mead

3.      The Dramaturgical Approach, developed by Erving Goffman

4.      The Psychoanalytic Viewpoint, developed by Sigmund Freud

5.      Psychosocial Stages of Development, developed by Erik Erickson

6.      Stages of Cognitive Development, developed by Jean Piaget

For ppt file, click.

Agents of Socialization:

1. Family; 2) School; 3) Peers; 4) Mass media; 5) Religion; 6) Workplace; and 7) State

b.  Social stratification refers to human differences existing among members of the society on the basis of age, sex or gender, intelligence and physical characteristics, such as body-build and appearance, race or ethnic group, birth or family name, education and power and prestige (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

Components of Social Stratification:

1.  Social class refers to the stratum or category of persons who have similar socio-economic privileges in the society (i.e. upper, middle, and lower classes)

2.  Social status refers to the social standing of a person or group within a social class, or in the entire social stratification system.  Certain rights, social expectations, duties and privileges are attached to the social position.  Social status can either be: (1) ascribed status – that which is assigned to the individual from birth and involves little personal choice like age and sex; and (2) achieved status – acquired by choice or through merit and individual effort and is made possible through special abilities or talents, performance or opportunity (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

3.  Role refers to the expected or actual behaviour patterns that correspond with status.  Rights, privileges, obligations, responsibilities are attached to the social role

4. Gender refers to the differentiation that sex makes in a culture and to the traits that are linked by culture to each sex, whereas sex refers to the biological make-up of an individual (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).

NOTE:  Social stratification results in social inequalities and opportunities in the acquisition and allocation of material and abstract rewards in the society.  The gap between the rich and the poor is a good example of social inequality in terms of wealth and income.  The rich have better opportunity to secure high-paying jobs or opportunity for new business ventures.

c.  The Basic Institutions:  In every society, the five basic institutions co-exist, namely: family, government, economy, church and school.  The term, institution, is defined by social scientists as “a pattern of norms centered on a major social goal, value, or need.”

1.  Family – the basic unit of every society.  It is the basic social group united by blood (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity), generally live together and participate in economic cooperation, and provides security, socialization, companionship and in the reproduction and preservation of the human race.  Marriage is an important element of the family.  Marriage (Howard & Hattis, 1992) is a “socially sanctioned sexual and economic union between men and women.” 
      
     Filipinos are known to be family-oriented.  A Filipino family consists of the grandparents, parents, and children.  This familial structure is also considered extended.  "Collective responsibility" is a value associated with family-orientedness.  It is described "as a responsibility of each member in the family to take responsibility to other members of the family.  For example, if the elder brother finished college and landed a good job, he would, then, took responsibility to send his younger siblings to school.  In the family, support system (like financial, emotional, political support) is strong.

    In contrast, Western family is known for giving more space on the right to privacy, self-determination, and giving more rights and privileges to each member of the family.  This structure of the family is considered as PERSONALISTIC, which gives more value on the individual person in the family.

     Forms of Marriage:

• Monogamy – the marriage of one male and one female
• Polygamy – the marriage between one person of one sex and a minimum of two persons of the other sex.  There are two forms of polygamy: (1) polyandry – marriage of one woman to two or more men, and (2) polygyny – marriage of one man to two or more women

2.  Political institution – a basic social institution that determines when, how and who should gain power

           Types of Government:

·     Monarchy – governed by one person like the Monarch or King

·    Aristocracy – governed by two or more persons like the members of the Aristocrat families or the bourgeoisie

·     Democracy – governed by all citizens in the society; leaders are elected

     There are two major types of government prevalent in 19th to 21st century, as follows: Dictatorial/ Totalitarian and Democratic.  Dictatorial/ Totalitarian government is closely identified with communism. Dictatorial government is usually governed by ambitious military leaders.  Totalitarian -a government which usurps all powers, roles, and functions of other institutions.  Some negative effects of totalitarian government: suppression and abuses of human rights.  Democratic government, on the other hand, is closely associated with capitalism.  A leader in a democratic government is elected by the people.  Some positive effects of democracy: self-determination and respect for human rights.

3. Economic institution – social structure that is related to production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

           Systems of Economy:

·  Capitalism – a system based on private ownership of the means of production and on competition for more profits; whereas, communism is a system where there are rich, no poor in the society.  This is also known as a "propertyless society."  No private individuals should own property.  It is only the state, which shall manage the property of the state.

·   Socialism – a system in which productive forces like labor, capital and land are owned and managed by the state.

4.  Religion – a sacred engagement or relationship with what is believed to be a spiritual reality.  According to Charles Taliaferro, there are five major religions in the world: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.  The first two, Hinduism and Buddhism, originated in India.  Siddhartha Gautama is known as the founder of Buddhism.  The last three are known as Abrahamic religions because Abraham is considered as the Father of Faith of each religion.  

5.  Education – a carefully designed and controlled process of learning in order for members of society to accumulate knowledge and information that may ensure the transformation or change in behaviour, making people more productive and efficient member of society.

There are significant changes in Philippine education: (1) professionalization of teachers in 1994; (2) creation of Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, and Technical Educational and Skills Development Authority, and (3) Senior High School Program

Anthropology, in its literal sense (from two Greek words, anthropos + logos) is defined as the study of human beings.  In technical sense, it is the science of Man and his works, which covers man’s physical, social, economic, cultural background and behaviour of human beings in a particular society.

            Branches of anthropology:

1.  Physical anthropology deals with the origin and evolutionary process of man, i.e. genetic make-up and changes of the human aspects of life

2. Cultural anthropology deals with the study of man’s behaviour and how he carries out and adapts to the various activities of everyday life.

One important element of human society is culture.  Culture is part and parcel of human life.  In fact, the SELF is embedded in one’s culture.  Edward Taylor, an English anthropologist, defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”  Culture is both material and immaterial.  Material culture refers to objects, tools, things, artifacts, economic goods, property which have become part or product of any behaviour system of man’s past, present, or future.  Immaterial culture, on the other hand, is composed of the behaviour, thoughts, beliefs, feelings as well as the intellectual, artistic, and social ideals and values that members of the society profess (Zulueta, 2006). 

Based on the idea of culture, we will discuss the following topics:

      1.  Self as embedded in culture
     (Read Related Articles: (1) Self and Culture; (2)  Society and Culture)

2.  Philippine Cultural Values  (Linked article: Philippine Cultural Values)    
3.  West vs. East 
     

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References:

Macionis, J. J. (2012). Sociology. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Victorio Y. Saquilayan, Felisa U. Aguirre, Miramar I. Garcia, Romeo R. Javines, Maria Rosario E.
Monce, Berlyn F. Pa-at, Evalyne A. Rodriguez. Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology.
Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc., 2009

Wilfredo B. San Juan & Ma Luz J Centeno. Sociology, Culture and Family Planning: A Conceptual, Experiential and Interactive Approach. Pasig City: Unlad Publishing House. 2011

Francisco M. Zulueta, Anthropological and Sociological Concepts and Perspectives, Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, 2006.

Jun Todoroki Abesamis, M. F. (2014). Society and Culture: A Liberal Approach in Understanding Humanity. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.