Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives

In the preceding chapter, The Philosophical Perspective, we tried to understand the self in philosophical way, starting from the Ancient Greek philosophers to Contemporary philosophers.  The next chapter on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives, we will be doing a kind of “archaeological digging” of the influences of the individual self.  In philosophy, we are taught to ask questions, further our questioning, and make questioning a habit, or as Rene Descartes would suggest, “doubt everything –systematically everything” until such time that we will arrive at something which is no longer dubitable.  In sociology and anthropology, we will “dig” –most likely similar to the idea of “excavation” done in archaeology, the different layers of influence of the self.  In particular, we look into the influences of other people in socialization process and the influences of social structures, institutions, and culture in the society to the SELF.  The topics, therefore, covered in this chapter are as follows:

A.     Sociology

1.  Theories of socialization
2.  Social Stratification
      a.  Social class
      b.  Social status
      c.  Role
      d.  Gender

3.  The basic institutions: family, school, government, religion, and economy

B.     Anthropology

1.  Self, embedded in culture

2.  Philippine cultural values

3.  West vs. East

Class Activity: Clarification of Values [click].  This activity is designed to help students clarify their personal values against their cultural values.  Cultural values are given; personal values are earned.  In the language of Socrates, they're caught, not taught. 


          After the “digging,” we hope to understand how the self is shaped by external factors and influences.  This consideration is somehow hanged on the nurture-nature problem – Is the self nurtured or natural?, or What matters most: genes or environment?  If we take into consideration the influence of the environment, we believe that the self is nurtured.  But, we don’t also disregard the fact that each human being is determined by his/her genes, which we will not discuss in this chapter.

     To begin, let’s define sociology.  Sociology is the systematic study of human society (Macionis, 2012).  Though the approach of Sociology is scientific but, at the heart of it, lies a point of view known as “sociological perspective.”  Sociological perspective is characterized by “seeing the general in the particular” (Berger, 1963 cited in Macionis).  Using this kind of perspective is like “seeing strange in the familiar” (Macionis, 2012).  In everyday life, what we usually do, think, or encounter are the things familiar to us.  For example, when we buy goods in a mall, what is usual or familiar is that the items we buy are placed inside a plastic bag.  What is strange in this familiar activity is that this plastic bag used in packaging the items adds up to the volumes of non-degradable wastes in our localities or in major cities.  These wastes materials cause headaches to our local officials on how to dispose or manage them for recycling.  Using this perspective, then, will help us see a “bigger picture” or help us formulate a “general view” of a certain issue or matter at hand.

Sociology is divided into two: micro-sociology and macro-sociology.  Micro-sociology deals with the details of particular interactions as they occur in everyday life (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  The topics mentioned above such as socialization, role, status, gender, and social class are concepts dealt in micro-sociology.  Macro-sociology, on the other hand, concerns with the larger patterns of relations among major social sectors (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  The topics such as family, religion, government, school, and economy are concepts dealt in macro-sociology.  Although with limited time for discussion, we’ll try to unpack their meaning, and how these social processes and structures enable us to understand the self better in the context of social life.  Group life (social life) is the groundwork or the “laboratory” of sociologists.  Without the common life of a group of people, sociology will not exist as an independent discipline.  We know how important group life is to each and every individual.  Individual self is shaped by the shared life of the group.  It is in this context that we will discuss the following concepts: socialization, role, status, gender, and social class.  In discussing these concepts, we need to put in mind how each concept shapes the self.

 a.  Socialization – a process by which an individual acquires attitudes, beliefs, and values of his or her culture.  It is a life-long process, which begins from infancy, to childhood, to adolescence, adulthood and finally old age (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).  It is undeniably true that in each stage of life, one may socialize with different persons who may have different values, beliefs and attitudes.  It would follow that he may have acquired various values, beliefs and attitudes in each stage of life.  Socialization is when one develops his self-concept and personality.

Theories of Socialization:

1.      “Looking Glass Self” Theory, developed by Charles Horton Cooley

2.      The Social Self Theory, developed by George Herbert Mead

3.      The Dramaturgical Approach, developed by Erving Goffman

4.      The Psychoanalytic Viewpoint, developed by Sigmund Freud

5.      Psychosocial Stages of Development, developed by Erik Erickson

6.      Stages of Cognitive Development, developed by Jean Piaget

For ppt file, click.

Agents of Socialization:

1. Family; 2) School; 3) Peers; 4) Mass media; 5) Religion; 6) Workplace; and 7) State

b.  Social stratification refers to human differences existing among members of the society on the basis of age, sex or gender, intelligence and physical characteristics, such as body-build and appearance, race or ethnic group, birth or family name, education and power and prestige (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

Components of Social Stratification:

1.  Social class refers to the stratum or category of persons who have similar socio-economic privileges in the society (i.e. upper, middle, and lower classes)

2.  Social status refers to the social standing of a person or group within a social class, or in the entire social stratification system.  Certain rights, social expectations, duties and privileges are attached to the social position.  Social status can either be: (1) ascribed status – that which is assigned to the individual from birth and involves little personal choice like age and sex; and (2) achieved status – acquired by choice or through merit and individual effort and is made possible through special abilities or talents, performance or opportunity (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

3.  Role refers to the expected or actual behaviour patterns that correspond with status.  Rights, privileges, obligations, responsibilities are attached to the social role

4. Gender refers to the differentiation that sex makes in a culture and to the traits that are linked by culture to each sex, whereas sex refers to the biological make-up of an individual (Saquilayan, et al, 2009).

NOTE:  Social stratification results in social inequalities and opportunities in the acquisition and allocation of material and abstract rewards in the society.  The gap between the rich and the poor is a good example of social inequality in terms of wealth and income.  The rich have better opportunity to secure high-paying jobs or opportunity for new business ventures.

c.  The Basic Institutions:  In every society, the five basic institutions co-exist, namely: family, government, economy, church and school.  The term, institution, is defined by social scientists as “a pattern of norms centered on a major social goal, value, or need.”

1.  Family – the basic unit of every society.  It is the basic social group united by blood (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity), generally live together and participate in economic cooperation, and provides security, socialization, companionship and in the reproduction and preservation of the human race.  Marriage is an important element of the family.  Marriage (Howard & Hattis, 1992) is a “socially sanctioned sexual and economic union between men and women.” 
      
     Filipinos are known to be family-oriented.  A Filipino family consists of the grandparents, parents, and children.  This familial structure is also considered extended.  "Collective responsibility" is a value associated with family-orientedness.  It is described "as a responsibility of each member in the family to take responsibility to other members of the family.  For example, if the elder brother finished college and landed a good job, he would, then, took responsibility to send his younger siblings to school.  In the family, support system (like financial, emotional, political support) is strong.

    In contrast, Western family is known for giving more space on the right to privacy, self-determination, and giving more rights and privileges to each member of the family.  This structure of the family is considered as PERSONALISTIC, which gives more value on the individual person in the family.

     Forms of Marriage:

• Monogamy – the marriage of one male and one female
• Polygamy – the marriage between one person of one sex and a minimum of two persons of the other sex.  There are two forms of polygamy: (1) polyandry – marriage of one woman to two or more men, and (2) polygyny – marriage of one man to two or more women

2.  Political institution – a basic social institution that determines when, how and who should gain power

           Types of Government:

·     Monarchy – governed by one person like the Monarch or King

·    Aristocracy – governed by two or more persons like the members of the Aristocrat families or the bourgeoisie

·     Democracy – governed by all citizens in the society; leaders are elected

     There are two major types of government prevalent in 19th to 21st century, as follows: Dictatorial/ Totalitarian and Democratic.  Dictatorial/ Totalitarian government is closely identified with communism. Dictatorial government is usually governed by ambitious military leaders.  Totalitarian -a government which usurps all powers, roles, and functions of other institutions.  Some negative effects of totalitarian government: suppression and abuses of human rights.  Democratic government, on the other hand, is closely associated with capitalism.  A leader in a democratic government is elected by the people.  Some positive effects of democracy: self-determination and respect for human rights.

3. Economic institution – social structure that is related to production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services

           Systems of Economy:

·  Capitalism – a system based on private ownership of the means of production and on competition for more profits; whereas, communism is a system where there are rich, no poor in the society.  This is also known as a "propertyless society."  No private individuals should own property.  It is only the state, which shall manage the property of the state.

·   Socialism – a system in which productive forces like labor, capital and land are owned and managed by the state.

4.  Religion – a sacred engagement or relationship with what is believed to be a spiritual reality.  According to Charles Taliaferro, there are five major religions in the world: Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.  The first two, Hinduism and Buddhism, originated in India.  Siddhartha Gautama is known as the founder of Buddhism.  The last three are known as Abrahamic religions because Abraham is considered as the Father of Faith of each religion.  

5.  Education – a carefully designed and controlled process of learning in order for members of society to accumulate knowledge and information that may ensure the transformation or change in behaviour, making people more productive and efficient member of society.

There are significant changes in Philippine education: (1) professionalization of teachers in 1994; (2) creation of Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, and Technical Educational and Skills Development Authority, and (3) Senior High School Program

Anthropology, in its literal sense (from two Greek words, anthropos + logos) is defined as the study of human beings.  In technical sense, it is the science of Man and his works, which covers man’s physical, social, economic, cultural background and behaviour of human beings in a particular society.

            Branches of anthropology:

1.  Physical anthropology deals with the origin and evolutionary process of man, i.e. genetic make-up and changes of the human aspects of life

2. Cultural anthropology deals with the study of man’s behaviour and how he carries out and adapts to the various activities of everyday life.

One important element of human society is culture.  Culture is part and parcel of human life.  In fact, the SELF is embedded in one’s culture.  Edward Taylor, an English anthropologist, defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”  Culture is both material and immaterial.  Material culture refers to objects, tools, things, artifacts, economic goods, property which have become part or product of any behaviour system of man’s past, present, or future.  Immaterial culture, on the other hand, is composed of the behaviour, thoughts, beliefs, feelings as well as the intellectual, artistic, and social ideals and values that members of the society profess (Zulueta, 2006). 

Based on the idea of culture, we will discuss the following topics:

      1.  Self as embedded in culture
     (Read Related Articles: (1) Self and Culture; (2)  Society and Culture)

2.  Philippine Cultural Values  (Linked article: Philippine Cultural Values)    
3.  West vs. East 
     

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References:

Macionis, J. J. (2012). Sociology. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Victorio Y. Saquilayan, Felisa U. Aguirre, Miramar I. Garcia, Romeo R. Javines, Maria Rosario E.
Monce, Berlyn F. Pa-at, Evalyne A. Rodriguez. Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology.
Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc., 2009

Wilfredo B. San Juan & Ma Luz J Centeno. Sociology, Culture and Family Planning: A Conceptual, Experiential and Interactive Approach. Pasig City: Unlad Publishing House. 2011

Francisco M. Zulueta, Anthropological and Sociological Concepts and Perspectives, Mandaluyong City: National Book Store, 2006.

Jun Todoroki Abesamis, M. F. (2014). Society and Culture: A Liberal Approach in Understanding Humanity. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.