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Tuesday, March 23, 2021

Ethical Theory of St Thomas

Tomas de Aquino.  Aquinas is not a family name.  In the tradition, if one is born to a noble family, the name of the place of his birth is added to his name.  Tomas was born in the castle of Rocasseca, Aquino –then part of Italy.  Thus, Tomas de Aquino or Tomas of Aquino –in English rendition, Thomas Aquinas.

Unlike Plato –a pagan philosopher, St Thomas is the epitome of Christian philosophy in the Medieval ages.  He is considered as one of the Doctors of the Church because of his scholarly work on theology and philosophy.  His two major writings: Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles.

In all of his writings, St Thomas gives high respect to Aristotle as “The Philosopher.”  Thus, we can’t deny the fact that St Thomas is much influenced by Aristotle. 

The moral theory of St Thomas synthesized the two great traditions, namely: Aristotelian philosophy and Christian Theology.  Aristotle is a Greek philosopher; a pagan philosopher like his Master Plato.  Christian theology, on the other hand, is propounded by the Patristic Fathers like St Augustine.  The core of Thomas’s moral philosophy is the realization of man’s nature as a reflection of God’s goodness.  But, because of original sin, man’s natural goodness became corrupted.  To become once again worthy in the eyes of God, we need to perfect our human nature as good by following the voice of our conscience.

To start, let me pose this question, “Is man naturally good?”

St Thomas affirms that man is naturally good. He borrowed the idea of St Augustine, that man is created by God who is good.  In fact, all of God’s creation is good.  Man is part of God’s creation.  So, he/she is naturally good.  But because of original sin, his/her nature is also fallen or corrupted.  Nobody is perfect like God the Father.  Yes, this is true!  Our good nature became corrupted –thus, not totally perfect, because of the original sin committed by Adam and Eve.  Thus, there is a need for us to perfect our human nature by doing good actions.  Our human effort to do good will make our human nature perfect once more.  Being moral is our way to perfect our human nature as good.  As we can see, morality is really important in our Christian life.  Being moral is not a mere requirement as followers of Christ but it's a way to become perfect, once more, in the eyes of God.

Let’s try to elaborate on the last point in the context of Aristotelian ethics.

Aristotle claims that man is a composite of body and soul.  As a composition of body and soul, man must have a substantial form or the essence of being human.  He defines “essence” or “substance” as “that which remains the same throughout the process of change.”  What we usually notice is that man changes and keeps on changing.  From infancy to old age, we notice a lot of changes in ourselves.  But, amidst these changes in us, there is something that remains the same –that is, our reason.  Thus, it is our reason that defines our essence as humans.  This is also what makes us different from animals. 

Man is essentially “rational,” Aristotle would put it.  Our reason or rational capacity is also the proper function of being human.  If a gun is made essentially for firing, then firing is also its proper function.  If a plant is made essentially for producing oxygen, then oxygen production is also its proper function.  If an animal is made essentially for the reproduction of its species, then it is also its proper function.  Is reproduction of species essentially what we are made for?  The answer of Aristotle is “NO.”  Man is made essentially for becoming rational.  Then, being rational is also his proper function. 

So, how should man function in relation to others?  How do we function as rational beings in the society?

For Aristotle, the only proper function of man in the society is to be rational.  How?  Do actions to the right person, at the right time, at the right place, at the circumstance, at the right disposition and so on.  How do we know that we are doing an action to the right person at the right time, place, circumstance, and on? 

We know it because we are rational –meaning, our reason dictates what is right.  If we know what is right, we will also what is right.  In Visaya, mobuot tag unsay maayo.  And, if we do what is right, we fulfill our human nature as rational, which is also our final goal in life.  For Aristotle, there is no other purpose of man on earth, except being rational.  Doing good is our human nature as rational beings.  It is also our final goal in life on earth.  There’s no other –no World of Ideas nor Heaven, where we find our ultimate happiness.  Our happiness is in doing the right thing because that’s what we are meant to be.  This is the idea of eudaimonia of Aristotle, which is happiness in doing the right thing to do.

St Thomas is in agreement with much of this thought of Aristotle.  But, because of his background in Christian theology, he added the idea that by nature, man is good because he/she is created by God who is good.    On this basis, it would become clear that, for St Thomas, doing good is not because we think it is the right thing to do but because it is our nature to do good.  In other words, being moral is not based on right reason but based on our good nature as created in the image and likeness of God.

The goodness of God is written in our hearts, which is referred to as the natural law.  This natural law is a participation of the eternal law emanating in all other beings.  This natural law serves as the fundamental principle of morality, which is written in the form of “Do good and avoid evil.” Our human will (pagbuot) has “the natural capacity or disposition to apprehend intuitively the fundamental moral principle,” which Medieval philosophers termed as “synderesis."  So, it is always the case that we will what is good.  The voice of “conscience” always tells (not commands) to do what is good.  In its literal sense, “conscience” means with knowledge –from two Latin words, con (with) + scientia (knowledge).  Thus, in all circumstances, we “will” with knowledge of the good.  No one wills what is bad for himself or to others.  Our human will (pagbuot) –at the least the free will, is always for the good. 

What do we really mean by, “free will”?

Our willing –which is free –free from overriding passions, free from emotions, free from self-inclination, free from the influence of drugs, free from the influence of alcohol, free from external pressure, free from external force, and so on and on.  If our willing is –at the very least, free, then our willing is always “with the knowledge” of the good.  In other words, we act or make decisions “with the knowledge” of the good.  If we fail to listen to the voice of conscience, that’s the time we feel remorse or feel guilty of doing things not in accordance with our good nature.

A person who always follows his conscience possesses these cardinal virtues.  Virtue is a habit that “disposes an agent to perform its proper operation or movement.” 

  1. Prudence - "wisdom concerning human affairs," or “right reason with respect to action” 
  2. Justice - a sustained or constant willingness to extend to each person what he or she deserves 
  3. Temperance - the restrained desire for physical gratification
  4. Courage – a virtue that restrains our fears so that we might endure harrowing circumstances (Catechism of the Catholic Church).

The man of conscience is one who is prudent, just, moderate (with temperance), and courageous

In conclusion, like Aristotle who believes that doing good is the realization of being human, St Thomas believes that doing good is the perfection of our fallen human nature.  But unlike Aristotle who believes that doing good is our ultimate happiness, St Thomas believes that our ultimate happiness is when we go back to Heaven.  In other words, doing good is our means to achieve our ultimate end, which is to go back to our heavenly paradise.

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Ethical Theory of St Thomas

Tomas de Aquino.   Aquinas is not a family name.   In the tradition, if one is born to a noble family, the name of the place of his birth is...