Ethical Theories

Overview of the Lessons:

This chapter presents the different ethical theories as propounded by great thinkers in the history of philosophy.  Theories are attempts of great thinkers to answer some fundamental ethical questions such as (1) Where do we get the principles of goodness and badness of actions?, (2) What is the nature of moral actions?, (3) How moral principles are applied to concrete situations? etc.  In discussing them, we hope to get some moral insights that would help us understand the ethical problems besetting our society today.

The presentation is not historical -in the sense that the philosophers are not presented in chronological order.  But the presentation is more on its themes.  Plato's and St Thomas's ethical theories are treated as "transcendent."  Aristotle's theory is treated as "aretaic."  Kant's theory is considered "deontological."  Bentham's and Mill's theories are treated as "utilitarian."  As mandated (CMO 20), the lessons on Justice and Taxation are included.

Lesson Contents:

1. Transcendent Theory - Watch the audio-visual material on this topic, part 1: Plato's Ethical Theory [Link] audio-visual and part 2: St Thomas's Ethical Theory [Link].  Performance Task 1 online [Link].
2. Aretaic (Virtue) Theory - Watch the audio-visual material on this topic [Link].  Performance Task 2 [Link].
3. Deontological Theory - Watch the audio-visual material on this topic.  
4. Utilitarianism - Watch the audio-visual material on this topic [Link].  Performance Task 3 [Link].
5. Justice & Taxation [Link]

Performance Tasks:

There are four (4) Performance Tasks that you need to comply for the Midterm period.  Links to the three tasks are found above.  The link to the last task is found in the next chapter, Elements of Moral Experience.

Quizzes:

1. Quiz 2 [Link] - covers the lesson Transcendent Theory 
2. Quiz 3 [Link] - covers the lessons on Aretaic & Deontological Theories
3. Quiz 4 [Link] - covers the lessons on Utilitarianism, and Justice and Taxation

References: [Link]

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

1. Ethics is part of the Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao program in our Philippine education system.  The fact is: there is moral degeneration in Philippine society.  To help solve this problem, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao program is launched.  This program starts from Basic Education until the Higher Education.  Students will take Values Education subjects from elementary until college.  The whole program is geared towards moral regeneration of all citizens in the Philippines.  
2. Ethics is applied in different fields of work: in business, in medical field, in law enforcement and even in political field.  So, Values Education is important in the formation of the moral character of every graduate.  The goal of our Philippine education is not merely forming graduates with excellence and competence in their individual fields but also forming graduates of moral excellence.
3. To make moral decisions needs knowledge, deliberation and consent of those concerned.  This course will help students develop skills in discussing, deliberating moral issues and help them formulate sound moral decision out of it.
4. Most importantly, this course will help every individual student realize his/her ultimate end or purpose in life: to become good.  We will feel sorry if one of our brothers or sisters or friends who had become the worst of criminals because we haven't helped her find her ultimate end in life: to become good.

BEING MORAL: A DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

In a narrower and stricter sense, ethics or morality refers to "that dimension of human existence whereby man confronts or finds himself, an ideal vision or an ideal state or goal of his existence" (Reyes, 1989).  Being moral is part and parcel of our human existence.  It is one of the dimensions of being human.  In Understanding the Self, we've learned that human existence, or each one of us, is multi-dimensional or multi-faceted.  Our human existence is marked by different aspects/dimensions/facets, namely: physical, emotional, mental, social, political, moral & spiritual.  This facet of human existence is manifest because of our moral sense.  What is moral sense?  It is our sense (knowledge) of goodness and badness of action.  As physical beings, we have the external senses.  With sense of sight, we distinguish what is beautiful from ugly.  With sense of hearing, we distinguish good music from noise.  With sense of taste, we distinguish delicious food from spoiled one.  In the same way, with moral sense, we distinguish good from bad actions, proper from improper, right from wrong.  Because of our moral sense, we will what is good.  Medieval philosophers also propounded the same: our human will (pagbuot) --at the very least, the free will, is always for the good.  In Visayan language, ang atong pagbuot para gyud sa unsay maayo; walay bisag usa nga mobuot og dautan.  

Why we ought to do good?  The answer is clear.  That's our ideal vision, our state, or our goal in life: to become good.  No one envisions himself as one like Satan, or his cohorts.  From a Christian perspective, the ideal vision of life is to become a "little less than God."  With this ideal vision in life, our moral sense dictates us to do what is good (in some sense of "ought") because we want to achieve our vision: to become good.  In the final analysis, being moral is to become good.  Becoming good is the realization of who we are as moral beings, which is one constitution of becoming human.  However, becoming good is easier said than done because there are hindrances to will what is good to be done, namely: (1) concupiscence or passion and (2) the evils of society.

1. Concupiscence - passion or desire.  It comes in different types: sexual desire, love for power, love for riches, etc.  Our passion hinders us to will what is good to be done in certain situations.  Because of sexual desire, a married man sleeps with another woman and another woman ... and another.  Because of love for power, a politician kills his political rival.  Because of love for riches, a businessman increases the prices of his goods in order to gain more profits.  Our passion, most often than not, blinds us from seeing our ideal vision: to become good.  In consequence, our passion becomes stronger than our willing to do what is good.  In the process, we choose bad actions rather than the good ones.
2. Evils of society - Human society is intended for the good of its member since no one can live on his own.  Yet, on its flipside, there are evils in society.  Mencius, an ancient Chinese philosopher, notes that "human society corrupts the natural goodness in man."  He gives a metaphor: "every single man is like a virgin forest but when human civilization encroaches this forest, it will lose its virginity."  At times, society corrupts the natural goodness of man.  As a result, he loses the purity of his will to do what is good.  Our modern society (this bourgeois society) is marked by individualism and consumerism.  With individualism, our society seems to teach us that each of us can live by himself/herself.  So, we strive to work harder for us to find and define our individual selves.  With consumerism, our society seems to teach us that we are because of what we consume.  Thus, we buy and buy things --even those things unnecessary. 

The different ethical theories to be discussed in the proceeding chapter will help us clarify some of those ideas initially discussed above.

Introduction to the Course

ETHICS

Ethics is one of the General Education courses offered in the new college curriculum.  Besides Ethics, the other General Education courses are as follows: Understanding the Self, Purposive Communication, Art Appreciation, Readings in Philippine History, Mathematics in the Modern World, and Science & Technology and Society.

Ethics is "a branch of philosophy that deals with the rightness or wrongness of human action."  Philosophy, in general, is an intellectual pursuit for the ultimate principles of all things under investigation.  For example, metaphysics, a branch of philosophy, deals with the ultimate principles of human existence, the whole of the physical universe as well.  Epistemology, another branch of philosophy, deals with the principles of true knowledge.  The intellectual pursuit for the ultimate principle is deemed necessary because this principle will serve as a ground or foundation of human existence, knowledge, morals, etc.  For the list of different subjects of philosophy, please click.

THE PRINCIPLE OF MORALS

The rightness or wrongness of human action presupposes a standard, criterion, or principle (ultimate principle) by which we distinguish right from wrong action (Montemayor, 1985).  On this score, this course will primarily try to search for the "norm and ground" of morals.  So, we will ask the following questions: What is the norm of morality? Where do we get the idea of goodness and badness of action? Is it coming from God or a transcendent Being? Is it coming from the man himself as a rational being? Is it coming from society? Or, what constitutes a morally good action?

Etymologically speaking, ethics and morality are synonymous or can be used interchangeably.  Ethics, on the one hand, (derived from the Greek word, ethos) means "traditional manners, customs, habits of a community" (Reyes, 1989).  Morality, on the other, (derived from the Latin word, mores) means the same thing as Ethics since the Romans borrowed much of the Greek culture.  From its etymology, Ethics or Morality connotes that the standard or principle of morals (what is right or wrong) is embedded in the shared life of the community.  As members of the community, we acquire this standard of morals or the principle of what is right and wrong.  Say, for example, pre-marital sex is wrong because that's what the community says so, or "death penalty" is wrong because the church says so.  This is what the Greek term, nomos, speaks of.  Nomos, in a literal sense, means "law" or "custom," which is generally thought of as a "social invention." In contrast, logos --another Greek term, which bears also the same literal meaning with nomos, is something "natural," not made nor created.  As something acquired, we can conclude that the norm of morality is something agreed upon or conventional, like the nomos, by members of the group. It is created or made by society, not something "natural" nor given as a "divine command."  To answer the question, What is the norm of morality?  The answer is clear.  The norm of morality comes from the community we live in.  

This idea (the norm of morals is created/made) gains support from sociologists and anthropologists.  From the sociological or anthropological point of view, the moral principle is part and parcel of our culture.  Culture consists of "everything" we already have, ranging from the things we use daily to the things considered "immaterial" such as traditions, practices, beliefs, norms, etc.  All these things (material & non-material), which are the components of culture, are made available to each and every member of society.  Thus, culture is "given" and shared, which would help define who we are --our moral self, in particular.  "Given," in the sense that culture forms part of the world we live in.  And, this "world" forms, transforms and re-forms us (or, maybe at times de-forms us) of who we are and who we are about to become.  Because we are "being-in-the-world," we imbibe everything shared in the community including the norms of what is right and what is wrong.

However, this position is difficult to defend.  One inherent problem of this stand is that the principle of morals is not universal.  "Universal," in the sense that what is considered "good" by a group of people (say, Visayans) must be "good" to Tagalogs, Muslims, and to all peoples.  Now, if the principle of morals is acquired from the community we are in and one community has a different culture from other communities, it is evidently true that different groups of people have different cultures.  So, no two people from different cultural backgrounds have the same idea of good or bad.  This is what sociologists call "cultural relativism."  Cultural relativism refers to the "practice of judging a culture by its own standard" (Macionis, 2012).  We cannot judge the cultural practice of people from outside their culture, or from the perspective of another culture.  This idea, somehow, sounds favorable because it promotes respect for one's culture and the individual person.  It also promotes multiculturalism --a perspective recognizing cultural diversity and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions (Macionis, 2012).  Yet, this idea remains unfavorable to some thinkers, especially to those having a strong religious background.  

At this juncture, it is helpful to classify the types of norms, which form part of one's culture: (1) aesthetic norms, (2) technical norms, (3) social norms, (4) legal norms, (5) ethico-religious norms, and (6) moral/ethical norms.  This rough classification does not put any clear demarcation between or among norms.  A technical norm, for example, may also be a legal norm, or it's a legal norm but not a social norm.  This classification, however, will serve only the purpose of differentiating moral norms from other norms in society. 

1. Aesthetic norms - refer to standards of distinguishing beautiful from ugly, audible from inaudible, edible from what is not edible, etc.  These standards are relative to one's perception -thus, somehow subjective.  As the saying goes, "beauty is in the eye of the beholder."  But, we can't deny the fact that some aesthetic standards are acceptable by a group of people.  Thus, there is what we call Europeans' standard of beauty or Filipinos' standard. 
2. Technical norms - refer to standards of distinguishing what is proper from improper, especially in technical matters of concern.  During this pandemic, "social distancing" is observed.  Social distancing (at least 1 meter apart) is a standard --a technical standard, in particular, each one has to observe in public to curb the transmission of the COVID 19 virus.  Social distancing is also a legal norm.
3. Social norms - refer to standards for group cohesion like what is the proper decorum in attending a party or in attending a church service.  These norms will specifically apply to behaviors appropriate in social gatherings or organizations.
4. Legal norms - refer to standards promulgated into laws.  These may cover all other norms, which are made into laws so that corresponding state-sanctioned penalties are imposed on violators.  But, one important thing to note is that what is legal is not necessarily moral, or what is moral is not necessarily legal.
5. Ethico-religious norms - refer to ethical norms or standards set by a certain religion.  These standards are made for the faithful to become worthy in the eyes of God.
6. Moral/ ethical norms - refer to ethical standards used to distinguish good from bad actions.  These standards are considered proper to every individual person because they help her achieve her proper end/purpose as a moral human being.  This point will be discussed thoroughly below.

BEING MORAL: A DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE [Link]

To view contents, please click the link above.

HUMAN ACTION

Ethics deals only with human actions.  These are actions which are free and voluntary --thus, done knowingly and willingly.  These are actions of man done with full knowledge and consent (Montemayor, 1985).  In contrast, the action done without full knowledge and full consent is called an act of man.  The responsibility belongs to, or is consequent upon, human acts but not to acts of man (Quito, 2008).

1. Full knowledge - This implies that a child is not culpable (not deserving blame) of her action.  It's because of her lack of knowledge in her action.  In the Philippines, juvenile delinquents like drug peddlers and murderers are under the age of 18.  So, they are not penalized like the adult ones --age 18 and above.  
2. Full consent - This implies that one has willingly done her action.  There are no threats or intimidation in doing the act, nor actions done under the influence of money, alcohol, etc.  She is the sole cause of the act and there's no other.  It is done out of her free will.  Indeed, one is most truly free when she is convinced that the action is good and such action is ought to be done (Pasco, et al, 2018).

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS [Link]

To view contents, please click the link above.

QUIZ 1 [Link] - Covers the topics discussed above, Introduction to the Course.

REFERENCES: [Link]